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清代康雍乾时期的民食安全研究
作者: 周全霞   来源: 江南大学 年份: 2009 文献类型 : 学位论文 关键词: 民食   康雍乾时期   粮食安全  
描述: roblem at all times and in all over the world.
全文:的基本国情使中国的民食安全成为世界关注的焦点。莱斯特·布朗的《谁来养活中国》一文曾引发了世界范围内关于中国民食问题的大讨论,也促使相关学者对此作出深入的研究和思考。清代康雍乾时期被称为我国封建史上最后一个
宋朝宣抚使制度研究
作者: 郑丽萍   来源: 河北大学 年份: 2009 文献类型 : 学位论文 关键词: 中央集权   地方军政   行政制度   宋朝   宣抚使  
描述: as the top power in local areas.Famous politician and prime minister in feudal China Li Gang once said,“From the forefather,Xuan Fu was the most important position which can be held by current archon."
全文:

宣抚使又称宣抚、宣使、宣相、宣威等,是宋朝统辖各大战区军政事务的重要使职官员,堪称宋代地方上影响力最大的官员。宋朝力主抗金的著名政治家、宰相李纲就曾讲:“祖宗以来,所置使名莫重于宣抚,多以现任执政官充之”。宣抚使制度在北宋前期就己设立,其后时置时废,前后延续了数百年。两宋之后,元、明、清诸代,仍设立此官职,宣抚使职能的重要性和影响力,从中可见一斑。 唐朝设立的宣抚使最初为朝廷临时派遣到地方主持赈灾、安抚边民的官员,职衔不高,权势不重,使命完结即回朝复命。北宋前期,宣抚使基本沿袭唐代的旧制,仍为朝廷派遣到地方安抚民众、赈灾、抚绥边境的使臣。这一时期,朝廷爱惜名器,任命宣抚使巡抚地方者甚少。北宋中期以后,随着与西夏长期而激烈的战争,同时还面临着来自于内部农民频繁变乱的压力。在内忧外患的局势下,宣抚使的职能和角色也发生了显著的变化,由以安抚为主要职责的临时朝廷遣使,开始演变为指挥地方军事作战与平乱的军政长官。北宋后期,随着战争形势的严峻,及内部农民起义的爆发,宣抚使设置更为频繁,辖区日渐扩大,出任宣抚使者官资进一步降低,并出现了由宦官担任宣抚使的事例。南宋时期,随着与金、元长期激烈的战争,宣抚使设置更为稳定,逐渐形成川陕、京湖、江淮宣抚使三大防御区域,选任资格也进一步放低,军事、财政权力进一步扩大。南宋后期,随着宋蒙元战事的吃紧,亦有重臣兼两大区宣抚使者之例,设置也更为频繁。而三大宣抚使所管辖的具体区划在不同历史时期也在不断变动之中。 宣抚使的副贰主要包括宣抚副使及宣抚判官。实际上北宋时,宣抚副使只是副长官,并不单独设置,判官则是重要属官。宣抚副使作为正使之副,协助正使工作。南宋时期宣抚使多为文臣担任,副使多以武将为之。宣抚判官辅佐宣抚使或宣抚副使治本司事,一般以知州以上资序人充。宣抚使有权辟置宣抚判官。南宋时期,宣抚司置判官一到二员。宣抚判官与宣抚副使“礼抗权均”,并负有监视宣抚司军队的使命。宣抚使幕府属官众多,主要包括承受文字官、参谋官、参议官、勾当公事(干办公事)、主管机宜文字等。宣抚使幕僚并非固定编制,各种属官在宣抚司中并不全都设置。宣抚使属官来源复杂,有以路级官员充任的,有以路级官司属官担任的,有幕职州县官担当的,亦有中央官员临时委任的。由于宣抚使司幕僚多由长官辟举,从而形成事实上的举主与门生的关系,因此宣抚使与幕僚一般有着较为亲密的关系,成为整个宣抚司机构正常运转的重要动力。 作为唐宋政治军事变革的产物之一,宣抚使角色的转型正是从职能的变化开始的,军事、治安等职能的增强,是宋朝宣抚使职能的最大特点。这两方面为其主要职能。具体包括组织并参与对周边民族政权的战争、组织军队招募、军队校阅、严明赏罚、体恤军兵、维持军队秩序、调发与管理粮草、武器、战马等军需资料、点检、修筑城池、组织防御、布置战略、平息兵变、叛乱及农民起义、组织并参与对境内少数民族作战等。人事管理也是宣抚使职能的一个重要方面,它不仅能够奏辟、举荐官员,而且对辖区内官员有权进行督察和奖惩。而在四川等特殊地区,宣抚使可以主持科举考试和负责官员的磨勘迁转,决定他们的去留。此外,宣抚使仍保留了最初职能,在地方赈灾、开垦农田、招纳流亡户口、兴修水利等民政领域也保持了重要的参与权力。而宣抚使对地方财权的控制和侵夺,更进一步增强了军政实力,成为地方的实际领导者。宣抚使甚至可以印制钱引、发行度牒,行使一部份中央的财政权力。为保障军队供应、满足自己私欲、讨好中央君主,多层面的原因导致了宣抚使财权的日益增强。此外,宣抚使在外交、文教、地方宗室事务中也发挥了一定作用,体现职能的多样性。 宋朝宣抚使作为地方上最重要的使职官员,与各级政府、官员形成了复杂多变的关系。从北宋中期起,宣抚使就取得了一定的便宜行事之权,有权辟置僚属、罢免官吏。至南宋,由于对金作战的需要使宣抚使便宜黜陟之权更是有了较大发展。由于宋朝的国策极力防范地方官员集军政财等大权与一身,以防止出现地方权力的膨胀和割据现象,从而使宣抚使与君主及中央各机构产生矛盾是不可避免的。而面对金朝、蒙元的屡屡南侵,宋廷不得不给予宣抚使相当大的权力以保证对金作战的需要。权力的收放成为中央与宣抚使之间争夺的焦点。中央采取了多种手段限制和笼络大权在握的宣抚使。地方上跨路级机构与宣抚使也形成了不同类型的关系,宣抚使司受级别更高的都督府节制。由于宣抚使、制置使职能相近,宣、制司长官之间存在一定矛盾。但一般情况下,宣抚使地位高于制置使,对制置使拥有节制之权。经略使、招讨使、招抚使、镇抚使等,地位皆低于宣抚使,受宣抚使节制。总领所作为地方上理财机构,宣抚使对财权的争夺使两司共同措办辖内经济事务中二司矛盾重重。地方上路、州、县各级机构、官员均听命宣抚使指挥,并可受征辟入幕府参办军政事务。 宋代宣抚使制度在长期发展中,形成了设置日益频繁,军政、财政等职权日益扩大,任职者官资趋于下降、辖区固定化、属官增多,文臣为正、武臣为副等特点,一度还出现了以宦官和降将为宣抚使的情况。 宋朝宣抚使制度的历史作用是多方面的,突出地表现在军事领域,宣抚使在北宋时期即成为抗击西夏与辽军,指挥前线军队作战的重要地方统帅。南宋时期,川陕、京湖、江淮宣抚使所领导的军队是南宋抗金作战的主力,维持了半壁河山,一度在对金作战中还占据了优势地位。即使在南宋后期,宣抚使军队的抗击,也有效地阻止了蒙元军队的进攻长达四十余年。而宣抚使对辖区民众的安抚、赈济、治安维护有效地减轻了人民的疾苦,对社会稳定具有积极意义。其所拥有的人事任免权、科举选士权,为宋代政府招揽了一批有为官僚和人才。当然,不可否认,宋朝宣抚使制度发展中也存在任用非人、监管不力的情况,如童贯之所为祸国殃民,吴曦叛国导致了四川门户大开,开禧北伐的失败。但这些问题并不会影响宋朝宣抚使制度整体评价,它作为宋朝一项重要的地方政治制度,对后世产生了巨大的历史影响,得到元、明、清诸王朝的继承和认可。

明代太仓库研究
作者: 苏新红   来源: 东北师范大学 年份: 2009 文献类型 : 学位论文 关键词: 太仓库   年例银   北边军饷   盐法   户部   明代财政  
描述: the financial system of the Ming Dynasty was always changing, this dissertation makes research on the state silver Treasury of the Ming Jiajing, Cunji Salt(存积盐effective way to solve this problem was to cultivate generations of gentry scholars with high-level morals. That was the fundamental reason that the Ming country preferred the selection and appointment of virtued talents to the complex and precise construction of the country’s systems. The basic problem of the Ming Dynasty’s tax system did not lie in whether the tax rate was high or low, but lie in the up-grading contradiction between the country’s decreasing ability to collect taxes and the increasing financial need in reality. The standard to measure the Ming Dynasty’s financial system was whether it corresponded to Ming people’s financial ideas and values. Compared with the modern capital society in which the personal interest has its natural justice, Ming China, with the limited productive capability, paid the most possible attention to the living conditions of the maximum current people. Judged by this idea, Ming China’s tax policy aiming to maintain the society’s steadiness and the minimum economic developing level was at least comprehensible rather than preposterous. ) was occasionally sold and the silver got by this was sent to Taicangku due to Taicangku’s financial need. However, this behaviour never became formally systematized. In the Jiajing period, in the dilemma that the forefathers’ governing systems should be maintained and the problem that Kaizhong System(开中制 ) could not effectively meet the north military towns’ financial need, a two-way system was formed gradually, in which Zhengyan(the original amount of salt controlled by the government, 正盐 ) was still kept for the north military towns and Yuyan(the residual salt, 余盐 ) was sold into silver and the silver was sent to Taicangku. Through this system, the Ministry of Revenue collected most of the incomes of the salt system into Taicangku and therefore strengthened its supervision and control towards the Salt Monopoly system. Because of the principle that the income from the Salt Monopoly system should be used to provide the military provisions and pays, which was set up in the early Ming Dynasty, the relationship between Taicangku and the north military towns’ financial expenditures was further strengthened too. All in all, the financial system of the Ming Dynasty was full of life and it kept changing as time went by or under the influences of different historical factors. This transforming process never ceased. Thus the study on the financial system of the Ming Dynasty or even the systems of the traditional China should pay attention to the community’s whole life process that the concerned system lived in. Only in this way can the reforming reasons and the basic conditions of the studied system be understood more clearly. As to the Emperor’s power in the Ming Dynasty’s financial system, it seems that the previous study has exaggerated it. In the Ming Dynasty, it had a clear tendency that the government’s public finances and the emperor’s personal finances separated from each other step by step. In this process, the Ministry of Revenue had a certain amount of administrative power towards Taicangku. Although all the economic decisions should get the emperor’s permission at last, it did not mean that the emperor’s financial power could not be divided or all the institutions under the emperor had only duties but no powers. Most of the previous study on the Ming Dynasty’s economics used the class struggle theory and paid too much attention to the contradictions between the ruling classes and the ruled ones. This dissertation’s study shows that inside the ruling classes there were enduring and profound struggles between the gentry scholars, who paid more attention to the country’s entire benefits, and the interest group with the emperor at the core, who put too much emphasis on their personal interests. The goal of the Ming Dynasty’s finances was to maintain the proper administration of the country by levying the minimum taxes and the ideological essence behind it was to protect the basic physical living conditions of the maximum people. The contradiction between the personal interest and the country’s public benefit was the basic problem in the Ming Dynasty’s financial system. Under the condition of keeping the imperial system unchanged, the comparatively practical and Dynasty, which in Chinese was called “Taicangku”(太仓库) , and aims to draw a line of what Taicangku’s financial system and status were and how they changed as the time went by. In order to show the main vertical line of Taicangku’s evolution, the basic method is to arrange the concerned historical materials in the chronological sequence. As to the bibliography, Mingshilu (《明实录》 ) keeps a complete record from the beginning to the end of the Ming Dynasty, and thus covers the whole developing course of Taicangku, which makes it the core document of this dissertation. Meanwhile, in order to know more precisely about the lateral condition of Taicangku’s financial system and status, this dissertation makes full use of the historical documents on the Ming Dynasty’s systems, such as Zhusizhizhang (《诸司职掌》 ), Minghuidian (《明会典》 ) , Taicangkao (《太仓考》 ), Wanli Kuaijilu (《万历会计录》 ) and so on. Besides, the collected works of Zhao Shiqing (赵 世卿) , Bi Ziyan (毕自严 ), Ni Yuanlu (倪元璐 ), who were the First Lord of the Ministry of Revenue (户部尚书 ), contain many official papers on Taicangku and therefore are important to this dissertation. This dissertation also refers to many other gentry scholars’ personal collected works or official papers. This dissertation’s study shows that Neiku( 内库 ) was an institution both for the government’s public finances and the imperial household’s private finances at the early period of the Ming Dynasty. As Neiku kept reducing its government financial duties and became mainly the setup for the imperial household’s private finances, Taicangku,which was set up in the seventh year of Zhengtong’s reign(正统) , took up more and more public financial duties of the country. Besides, the larger and larger silver need in the north military towns was another reason that Taicangku’s revenue items kept increasing. After a long and slow evolving process in Zhengtong, Jingtai(景泰 ), Tianshun(天顺 ),Chenghua(成化 ) and so on, Taicangku developed quickly in Jiajing(嘉靖 ), Longqing(隆庆 ) and Wanli (万历 ). As Taicangku’s revenue became larger, its financial status got higher and this process reached its peak in the first period of Wanli, when its income in the outside warehouse was used for the regular expenditures in the capital and the north military towns while the silvers in the old and underground warehouses were stored and saved for military emergencies or serious natural calamities. At this period, the income of Neiku was used mainly for the imperial household’s expenses. In the middle period of Wanli, on one hand, the financial need of the north military towns was still expanding while the Ministry of Revenue was no longer capable of enlarging Taicangku’s revenue items and its income amount, which resulted in the bigger and bigger gap between Taicangku’s fixed revenue and the north military towns’ practical financial need. On the other hand, Taicangku’s revenue items and its practical income amount kept decreasing due to the increase of the uncollected taxes and exempted taxes so that it was unable to pay its fixed amount of annual silver to the north military towns. Although the augmentation of new taxes and the borrowings from the old and underground warehouses of Taicangku and the Ministry of Revenue in Nanjing relieved Taicangku from its financial difficulties temporarily, they could neither change the tendency that Taicangku’s income became less and less nor alter the fact that the financial needs of the north military towns kept increasing. The reverse transformations between Taicangku’s practical revenue and the north military towns’ financial needs led to the collapse of the Ming Dynasty’s government finances. Among Taicangku’s spending items, the most important one was the annual silver sent to the north military towns. In the early and middle developing periods of Taicangku, Taicangku’s annual silver was only a part of the Capital’s annual silver(Jingyunyin, 京运银 ). At the end of Jiajing and the beginning of Longqing, Taicangku took up the main duty to provide the Capital’s annual silver. In the early period of Wanli, the issue of Taicangku’s annual silver was ruled by the steady system and this part of silver became a regular component of the north military towns’ financial provisions to maintain their fundamental administration. From then on to Chongzhen, Taicangku’s annual silver and the Capital’s annual silver became one thing. Although the record of Taicangku’s providing the annual silver could be seen in the documents of Chenghua, the record of its yearly provided amount appeared in the first year of Longqing. In Jiajing’s reign, Taicangku had become the important setup to grant the Capital’s annual silver, although there were not enough historical materials to prove that this period’s Capital annual silver was entirely taken on by Taicangku. In Longqing and the early period of Wanli, the yearly amount of Taicangku’s annual silver was steady and the difference between different years was not big; the budget of Taicangku’s annual silver could be realized and there was no big gap between the budget amount and the practical granted amount of Taicangku’s annual silver. From the fifteenth year of Wanli to the thirty-sixth year of Wanli, the yearly amount of Taicangku’s annual silver increased quickly and formed so much financial pressure to Taicangku that the Ministry of Revenue had to borrow silver from its own old and underground warehouses, or from the the silver storehouse of the Court of the Imperial Stud(Taipusi, 太仆寺 ). On the other hand, as Taicangku’s practically colleted revenue became less and less, Taicangku’s practical expenditure of its annual silver became decreasing. From the late period of Wanli to Chongzhen, the annual silver’s budget of the previously built warehouse of Taicangku( Jiuku, 旧库) stopped increasing and maintained at a relatively steady level. At the same time, the practical silver amount that Taicangku provided to the north military towns reduced quickly and the gap between them became larger and larger. At the end of Longqing and the beginning of Wanli, the proportion of Taicangku’s annual silver and the north military towns’ total amount of military provisions was almost equal to one third. On one side, this rate showed that Taicangku’s annual silver had become very important to the north military towns; on the other hand, this rate also reflected that the provisions of the north military towns were not completely relied on Taicangku’s annual silver and the incomes from the Soldiers’ Field (Tuntian,屯田 ), peasant-transported tax (Minyun, 民运) and salt monopoly, which were two thirds of the whole provisions of the north military towns, were still the fundamental part. The basic financial principle of the Ming Dynasty was to expend according to the income and this year’s revenue and stock were usually expended for the next year. However, in the most years after Jiajing, due to the high financial pressure of the north military towns and the fact that the income was not enough to cover the expending need, the Ming government had to take measures to enlarge Taicangku’s revenue items. As a result, some of the provisional income items or the items that were meant to meet certain emergencies finally became formal and institutional elements of Taicangku’s income. In the most years from the late period of Wanli to Chongzhen, Taicangku’s yearly expenditure frequently exceeded its yearly income. Not only the newly-added revenue could not be collected, but also more and more original amount of income could not be collected. In most of the recorded years from the seventh year of Jiajing until Chongzhen, Taicangku’s yearly expenditures exceeded its yearly revenues. However, in this situation, Ming China’s financial system kept running for more than a century. The first reason was that the editors of Mingshilu had a strong inclination to choose Taicangku’s losing years to record, which strengthened the impression that Taicangku was at a loss for a long period. The second reason was that Taicangku’s revenue amount generally referred to the incomes of the fixed tax items while the borrowed silver from other institutions were included in Taicangku’s expenditures but excluded from Taicangku’s incomes. The third reason was that one of the motive forces of Taicangku’s development was its enlarging financial expenditures. The last reason was that Taicangku’s value to the Ming government’s financial system, especially to the north military towns’ militrary provisions and pays, was not fundamental but subsidiary. Finally, the history of the evolving relationship between Taicangku and Salt Monopoly system showed that the Jiajing period was the watershed of their financial relationship. Before
全文:本文以明代太仓库为研究对象,从基本财政体制及国家与社会互动的角度,用动态的眼光对其进行考察。其基本目标是展现太仓库作为明代中央财政核心库藏机构的制度设置、管理、变更历程,考察太仓库收支项目、数量
呼麦艺术的音乐心理学研究
作者: 贾威   来源: 首都师范大学 年份: 2009 文献类型 : 学位论文 关键词: 呼麦   心理依据   发声技巧   传承保护  
描述: art form in northern nomads, which is rare to see, as the form of vocal music, that one person can sing two musical parts simultaneously.
全文:的限制,现仅存于蒙古国、俄罗斯图瓦共和国、我国新疆阿尔泰地区以及内蒙古部分地区。 就目前的现状来看,了解、研究呼麦的人还不是很多,对其独特的演唱发声原理、演唱方法和技巧、演唱历史与风格特征等的研究
中国北方前仰韶时代石铲研究
作者: 李艳红   来源: 中国科学技术大学 年份: 2009 文献类型 : 学位论文 关键词: 石铲   原始农业   型式演变   北方   前仰韶时代  
描述: Stone shovel is one kind of important agricultural tools in periods from Neolithic Age to Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasty.
全文:石铲是我国新石器时代直至夏商周时期一种重要的农业生产工具,也是北方前仰韶时代出土数量较多且最具特色的生产工具之一。目前对于北方前仰韶时代的石铲进行全面系统研究的著作和论文尚不多见。本文从考古类型学
古代保健“茶汤”的医学史研究
作者: 苏诺   来源: 中国中医科学院 年份: 2009 文献类型 : 学位论文 关键词: 医学发展史   保健饮品   茶汤  
描述: ning traditional tea or non-tea drinks (soft drinks).
全文:本文研究的主体是中国古代的保健“茶汤”。“茶汤”一词是本文从古代众多保健饮品术语中遴选出来的,用以代指传统的茶或非茶制成的饮品(以植物性原料为主,不含酒精)。 茶只是我国古代众多植物性保健饮品之一
马疏及“日损益斋”诗文研究
作者: 王忠禄   来源: 西北师范大学 年份: 2009 文献类型 : 学位论文 关键词: 马疏   农事诗   唱和诗   陇右地域文化   陇右文学精神   日损益斋古文   陇右文学   日损益斋古今体诗   题画诗  
描述: e points about studying of Longyou area literature.
全文:本文共分四章。绪论部分,结合陇右地域文化,对陇右文学的研究现状进行梳理。陇右曾产生了一大批杰出作家和著名作品,陇右文学在中国文学史上具有很重要的地位。但是,相较于其突出贡献而言,学界对陇右文学的关注
环县城乡协调发展研究
作者: 刘超华   来源: 西北师范大学 年份: 2009 文献类型 : 学位论文 关键词: 城乡协调   协调发展途径   城乡差距   环县  
描述: 城市和乡村是两大各具鲜明特色的社会系统,城市是现代工业社会的代表,而农村代表着传统的农业社会。城乡关系的演变是一个动态的人类社会发展过程,协调的、良性互动的城乡关系既是区域可持续发展的基础,又是推动经济社发展的动力环。本文对环县城乡协调发展进行了系统的分析,整体而言,环县城乡联系不足,城镇的核心作用
全文:。(1)对当前时代背景下研究城乡协调发展的目的、重大意义作了阐述,在对相关研究动态加以评述的基础上,提出了论文的研究思路和方法。(2)阐述了城乡协调发展的概念和内涵,并对城乡协调发展的相关理论基础进行系统
明罗汝敬事功研究
作者: 王敬伟   来源: 兰州大学 年份: 2009 文献类型 : 学位论文 关键词: 罗汝敬   事功   西北开发  
描述: g Bu between Yong Le and Zheng Tong. He had participated in the third recession of ,Ming Dynsty called troops back from An Nan(The Fouth and Fifth Chapter) and affirms his role on the the mutation relationship between Ming Dynasty and An Nan. Luo Rujing took an important part in the development of Shan Xi Military-Farmsettlement for ten years. He had made enormous contribution on Shan Xi Military-Farmsettlement's restoration and water conservancy facilities management. Compared with the later period of Yong Le, Shan Xi military farm settlement has restored greatly on a stage as intermediate period of Xuan De. With Luo Rujing's absent from Shan Xi, Military一Farmsettlement in northwest of Ming Dynasty degraded obviously. "Paeificated Jiao Zhi, Carried out the mission successfully" and had come into ShanXi four times to manage in the opening up wasteland and "He contributes in many aspects".
全文:罗汝敬是明代前期的重要文官,在永乐至正统年间历任侍讲、御史、工部右侍郎等职,曾参与《太祖实录》的第三次修订;两次“抚谕交趾,不辱命”;四次入陕督理屯田,“多所建制”。 本文以罗汝敬的生平为主线,重点叙述罗汝敬代表明政府从安南撤军期间的所作所为,对罗汝敬在明安关系的转变中所起的作用给予肯定;罗汝敬对陕西军屯的发展可谓殚精竭虑,其在陕时间长达八年,对陕西军屯的恢复和水利设施的管理贡献巨大,使宣德中期陕西军屯与永乐后期相比有较大恢复。随着罗汝敬的离陕,明代西北的军屯从此一蹶不振。
伊秉绶书法艺术研究
作者: 何岩   来源: 河南大学 年份: 2009 文献类型 : 学位论文 关键词: 伊秉绶   清代   书法   碑学  
描述: ng Dynasty.
全文:阶段:1、启蒙期(以帖学为主);2、发展期(碑帖并重);3、成熟期(以碑为主)。 第二部分通过对伊秉绶书法及思想渊源分析:我们可以看出他之所以成为清代开宗立派的人物,除了他自身的勤奋刻苦以外,其中
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