清至民国时期（1644-1949）甘肃地区的旱灾与社会应对研究

作者： 魏光   来源： 陕西师范大学 年份： 2014 文献类型 ： 学位论文 关键词： 旱灾   民国   清代   甘肃   民间力量   政府救灾  

描述： 清至民国时期,甘肃地区的旱灾十分频繁,给当地人民的生产与生活造成了极大影响。近年来,甘肃地区更是旱情严重,防旱、抗旱事业日渐成为关系甘肃民生的头等大事。研究清至民国时期甘肃地区的旱灾,总结旱灾的分布规律、分析旱灾的社会影响、探讨当时社会的救灾机制,可以为当前甘肃乃至全国的抗旱事业提供十分重要的参考价

全文：旱灾的社会应对。在具体的行文之中,又分时期、分地区对旱灾的某些反映方面进行了系统比较,总结出旱灾的演变特点与应灾机制的发展创新。总之,本文通篇是以“旱灾与社会”这两大因素的相互结合为研究中心,通过展开

明代太仓库研究

作者： 苏新红   来源： 东北师范大学 年份： 2009 文献类型 ： 学位论文 关键词： 太仓库   年例银   北边军饷   盐法   户部   明代财政  

描述： the financial system of the Ming Dynasty was always changing, this dissertation makes research on the state silver Treasury of the Ming Jiajing, Cunji Salt(存积盐effective way to solve this problem was to cultivate generations of gentry scholars with high-level morals. That was the fundamental reason that the Ming country preferred the selection and appointment of virtued talents to the complex and precise construction of the country’s systems. The basic problem of the Ming Dynasty’s tax system did not lie in whether the tax rate was high or low, but lie in the up-grading contradiction between the country’s decreasing ability to collect taxes and the increasing financial need in reality. The standard to measure the Ming Dynasty’s financial system was whether it corresponded to Ming people’s financial ideas and values. Compared with the modern capital society in which the personal interest has its natural justice, Ming China, with the limited productive capability, paid the most possible attention to the living conditions of the maximum current people. Judged by this idea, Ming China’s tax policy aiming to maintain the society’s steadiness and the minimum economic developing level was at least comprehensible rather than preposterous. ) was occasionally sold and the silver got by this was sent to Taicangku due to Taicangku’s financial need. However, this behaviour never became formally systematized. In the Jiajing period, in the dilemma that the forefathers’ governing systems should be maintained and the problem that Kaizhong System(开中制 ) could not effectively meet the north military towns’ financial need, a two-way system was formed gradually, in which Zhengyan(the original amount of salt controlled by the government, 正盐 ) was still kept for the north military towns and Yuyan(the residual salt, 余盐 ) was sold into silver and the silver was sent to Taicangku. Through this system, the Ministry of Revenue collected most of the incomes of the salt system into Taicangku and therefore strengthened its supervision and control towards the Salt Monopoly system. Because of the principle that the income from the Salt Monopoly system should be used to provide the military provisions and pays, which was set up in the early Ming Dynasty, the relationship between Taicangku and the north military towns’ financial expenditures was further strengthened too. All in all, the financial system of the Ming Dynasty was full of life and it kept changing as time went by or under the influences of different historical factors. This transforming process never ceased. Thus the study on the financial system of the Ming Dynasty or even the systems of the traditional China should pay attention to the community’s whole life process that the concerned system lived in. Only in this way can the reforming reasons and the basic conditions of the studied system be understood more clearly. As to the Emperor’s power in the Ming Dynasty’s financial system, it seems that the previous study has exaggerated it. In the Ming Dynasty, it had a clear tendency that the government’s public finances and the emperor’s personal finances separated from each other step by step. In this process, the Ministry of Revenue had a certain amount of administrative power towards Taicangku. Although all the economic decisions should get the emperor’s permission at last, it did not mean that the emperor’s financial power could not be divided or all the institutions under the emperor had only duties but no powers. Most of the previous study on the Ming Dynasty’s economics used the class struggle theory and paid too much attention to the contradictions between the ruling classes and the ruled ones. This dissertation’s study shows that inside the ruling classes there were enduring and profound struggles between the gentry scholars, who paid more attention to the country’s entire benefits, and the interest group with the emperor at the core, who put too much emphasis on their personal interests. The goal of the Ming Dynasty’s finances was to maintain the proper administration of the country by levying the minimum taxes and the ideological essence behind it was to protect the basic physical living conditions of the maximum people. The contradiction between the personal interest and the country’s public benefit was the basic problem in the Ming Dynasty’s financial system. Under the condition of keeping the imperial system unchanged, the comparatively practical and Dynasty, which in Chinese was called “Taicangku”（太仓库） , and aims to draw a line of what Taicangku’s financial system and status were and how they changed as the time went by. In order to show the main vertical line of Taicangku’s evolution, the basic method is to arrange the concerned historical materials in the chronological sequence. As to the bibliography, Mingshilu (《明实录》 ) keeps a complete record from the beginning to the end of the Ming Dynasty, and thus covers the whole developing course of Taicangku, which makes it the core document of this dissertation. Meanwhile, in order to know more precisely about the lateral condition of Taicangku’s financial system and status, this dissertation makes full use of the historical documents on the Ming Dynasty’s systems, such as Zhusizhizhang (《诸司职掌》 ), Minghuidian (《明会典》 ) , Taicangkao (《太仓考》 ), Wanli Kuaijilu (《万历会计录》 ) and so on. Besides, the collected works of Zhao Shiqing (赵 世卿) , Bi Ziyan (毕自严 ), Ni Yuanlu (倪元璐 ), who were the First Lord of the Ministry of Revenue (户部尚书 ), contain many official papers on Taicangku and therefore are important to this dissertation. This dissertation also refers to many other gentry scholars’ personal collected works or official papers. This dissertation’s study shows that Neiku( 内库 ) was an institution both for the government’s public finances and the imperial household’s private finances at the early period of the Ming Dynasty. As Neiku kept reducing its government financial duties and became mainly the setup for the imperial household’s private finances, Taicangku,which was set up in the seventh year of Zhengtong’s reign（正统） , took up more and more public financial duties of the country. Besides, the larger and larger silver need in the north military towns was another reason that Taicangku’s revenue items kept increasing. After a long and slow evolving process in Zhengtong, Jingtai(景泰 ), Tianshun(天顺 ),Chenghua(成化 ) and so on, Taicangku developed quickly in Jiajing(嘉靖 ), Longqing(隆庆 ) and Wanli (万历 ). As Taicangku’s revenue became larger, its financial status got higher and this process reached its peak in the first period of Wanli, when its income in the outside warehouse was used for the regular expenditures in the capital and the north military towns while the silvers in the old and underground warehouses were stored and saved for military emergencies or serious natural calamities. At this period, the income of Neiku was used mainly for the imperial household’s expenses. In the middle period of Wanli, on one hand, the financial need of the north military towns was still expanding while the Ministry of Revenue was no longer capable of enlarging Taicangku’s revenue items and its income amount, which resulted in the bigger and bigger gap between Taicangku’s fixed revenue and the north military towns’ practical financial need. On the other hand, Taicangku’s revenue items and its practical income amount kept decreasing due to the increase of the uncollected taxes and exempted taxes so that it was unable to pay its fixed amount of annual silver to the north military towns. Although the augmentation of new taxes and the borrowings from the old and underground warehouses of Taicangku and the Ministry of Revenue in Nanjing relieved Taicangku from its financial difficulties temporarily, they could neither change the tendency that Taicangku’s income became less and less nor alter the fact that the financial needs of the north military towns kept increasing. The reverse transformations between Taicangku’s practical revenue and the north military towns’ financial needs led to the collapse of the Ming Dynasty’s government finances. Among Taicangku’s spending items, the most important one was the annual silver sent to the north military towns. In the early and middle developing periods of Taicangku, Taicangku’s annual silver was only a part of the Capital’s annual silver(Jingyunyin, 京运银 ). At the end of Jiajing and the beginning of Longqing, Taicangku took up the main duty to provide the Capital’s annual silver. In the early period of Wanli, the issue of Taicangku’s annual silver was ruled by the steady system and this part of silver became a regular component of the north military towns’ financial provisions to maintain their fundamental administration. From then on to Chongzhen, Taicangku’s annual silver and the Capital’s annual silver became one thing. Although the record of Taicangku’s providing the annual silver could be seen in the documents of Chenghua, the record of its yearly provided amount appeared in the first year of Longqing. In Jiajing’s reign, Taicangku had become the important setup to grant the Capital’s annual silver, although there were not enough historical materials to prove that this period’s Capital annual silver was entirely taken on by Taicangku. In Longqing and the early period of Wanli, the yearly amount of Taicangku’s annual silver was steady and the difference between different years was not big; the budget of Taicangku’s annual silver could be realized and there was no big gap between the budget amount and the practical granted amount of Taicangku’s annual silver. From the fifteenth year of Wanli to the thirty-sixth year of Wanli, the yearly amount of Taicangku’s annual silver increased quickly and formed so much financial pressure to Taicangku that the Ministry of Revenue had to borrow silver from its own old and underground warehouses, or from the the silver storehouse of the Court of the Imperial Stud(Taipusi, 太仆寺 ). On the other hand, as Taicangku’s practically colleted revenue became less and less, Taicangku’s practical expenditure of its annual silver became decreasing. From the late period of Wanli to Chongzhen, the annual silver’s budget of the previously built warehouse of Taicangku（ Jiuku， 旧库） stopped increasing and maintained at a relatively steady level. At the same time, the practical silver amount that Taicangku provided to the north military towns reduced quickly and the gap between them became larger and larger. At the end of Longqing and the beginning of Wanli, the proportion of Taicangku’s annual silver and the north military towns’ total amount of military provisions was almost equal to one third. On one side, this rate showed that Taicangku’s annual silver had become very important to the north military towns; on the other hand, this rate also reflected that the provisions of the north military towns were not completely relied on Taicangku’s annual silver and the incomes from the Soldiers’ Field (Tuntian，屯田 )， peasant-transported tax (Minyun, 民运) and salt monopoly, which were two thirds of the whole provisions of the north military towns, were still the fundamental part. The basic financial principle of the Ming Dynasty was to expend according to the income and this year’s revenue and stock were usually expended for the next year. However, in the most years after Jiajing, due to the high financial pressure of the north military towns and the fact that the income was not enough to cover the expending need, the Ming government had to take measures to enlarge Taicangku’s revenue items. As a result, some of the provisional income items or the items that were meant to meet certain emergencies finally became formal and institutional elements of Taicangku’s income. In the most years from the late period of Wanli to Chongzhen, Taicangku’s yearly expenditure frequently exceeded its yearly income. Not only the newly-added revenue could not be collected, but also more and more original amount of income could not be collected. In most of the recorded years from the seventh year of Jiajing until Chongzhen, Taicangku’s yearly expenditures exceeded its yearly revenues. However, in this situation, Ming China’s financial system kept running for more than a century. The first reason was that the editors of Mingshilu had a strong inclination to choose Taicangku’s losing years to record, which strengthened the impression that Taicangku was at a loss for a long period. The second reason was that Taicangku’s revenue amount generally referred to the incomes of the fixed tax items while the borrowed silver from other institutions were included in Taicangku’s expenditures but excluded from Taicangku’s incomes. The third reason was that one of the motive forces of Taicangku’s development was its enlarging financial expenditures. The last reason was that Taicangku’s value to the Ming government’s financial system, especially to the north military towns’ militrary provisions and pays, was not fundamental but subsidiary. Finally, the history of the evolving relationship between Taicangku and Salt Monopoly system showed that the Jiajing period was the watershed of their financial relationship. Before

全文：将之作为研究整个有明一代太仓库发展、演变以及不同时期地位作用变化的核心文献。同时,本文利用各朝制书,如洪武时期《诸司职掌》、正德《明会典》、万历《明会典》、万历《太仓考》以及《万历会计录》等文献,对太仓

明清时期石羊河流域农业开发与环境变化研究

作者： 栾晓丽   来源： 陕西师范大学 年份： 2010 文献类型 ： 学位论文 关键词： 石羊河流域   农业开发   明清时期   环境变化  

描述： In history;the central and local separatist all valued the development of this area. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties,with the renewed fighting in the northwest, coupled with the rapid growth of the national population, In order to consolidating border defense and detenting Mainland population pressure,the land development of this area resumevted,which impacted histoy development of this area very profoundly Academic research in this area is more included in the academic research for the whole Hexi area or the entire northwest region, special articles in this area are also mainly concentrated in the lower reaches of Shiyang River, but these research the upper, middle and lower reaches of the river as a whole rarely,the connection among the three is.very close essentially.So this object has larger space to continue researching. This text includes introduction and body text.the introduction introduces the writing causes ,implication,and retrospects intellectual history, explains research objectives,Methods and important and difficult points of this object at the same time.The body text divides into six chapters.The first chapter analyzes the natural conditions and social infrastructure in this area.The second chapter mainly deals with immigration status which Ming and Qing government organize and encourage the population in the mainland move to this area,which provides manpower resources for agricultural development in this area,and this chapter discusses effectiveness of the immigration.The third chapter discusses construction of water conservancy which agricultural development requires,and summarizes pearls and pitfalls of water conservancy construction in this area during this period.The fourth chapter mainly deals with agricultural development in this area during the Ming and Qing dynasties,This chapter begin by the reasons for agricultural development and policies which the government urge and offer for, discusses region of agricultural development, reclamation success and evolution of tonden in this area during this time.The fifth chapter mainly discusses environmental problems that because of large-scale development in this period,and analyzes performance, hazard and measures that local people inoder to protecting the environment had taken.The sixth chapter summarizes experience and lessons those because of large-scale development in this period during this time,and explains inspiration for today's development. Research of this object is primarily based on literature of the Ming and Qing Dynasties and local records, and notes data that through field visits get, in order to make the discussion Speci.ficly and reasonably.

全文：农业开发的督促、优惠政策等入手,探讨了这一时期本区的农业开发区域及垦殖成效和当地屯田的演变发展等问题。第五章主要论述了因这一时期大规模开发而带来的环境问题,探讨了环境问题的表现及危害,并探讨

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描述： DINEIJING ", further studies the relationship between Five Elements Theory as a philosophy and the ancient Chinese medicine.

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新疆乌孜别克族民间信仰研究

作者： 刘烨   来源： 新疆师范大学 年份： 2009 文献类型 ： 学位论文 关键词： 乌孜别克族   新疆   民间信仰  

描述： The Uzbek people is one of the ethnic group lived in Xinjiang from generation to generation.

全文：,他们带来了“乌孜别克”这个称呼;二是中亚河中地区的原有农业定居民。然后分析了乌孜别克族宗教演变的情况。 文章的第二部分研究了乌孜别克族在日常生活中对自然物的崇拜与禁忌,对原始神祗的信仰,繁杂的鬼灵观念

敦煌写本佛经题记研究

作者： 魏郭辉   来源： 兰州大学 年份： 2009 文献类型 ： 学位论文 关键词： 唐宋   敦煌写本   佛经题记  

描述： ng degrees in different periods of Dunhuang

全文：现的佛教经典的隆替和祈愿对象、功德内容的变化以及文化演变情况。敦煌佛教既具有地方特色,又具有中原特色,以佛典为载体的文化交流,更加体现出敦煌地区性文化特色,而佛经题记中所记来自中原及周边地区抄写的佛经

发展现代农业：现实挑战与路径选择

作者： 杨超   来源： 曲阜师范大学 年份： 2009 文献类型 ： 学位论文 关键词： 发展机遇   现代农业   现实困境   科技创新  

描述： ricultural modernization. In view of the overall situation, there is need to follow the general

全文：现代农业制度作为研究对象,以现代农业制度的发展演变为研究的切入点,以现代农业制度的绩效和面临的困境分析为研究的关键点,借助制度变迁的相关理论,重点研究未来现代农业制度的路径选择。 现代农业与传统农业有

《齐民要术》复音词的构词法研究

作者： 彭奇伟   年份： 2007 文献类型 ： 学位论文 关键词： 复音词   构词法   词性   《齐民要术》   语义  

描述： 本文选取成书于公元六世纪三十年代至四十年代之间的农学名著《齐民要术》中的复音词为研究对象，在对其复音词从语义、词性结构方式等多个角度进行细致、充分描写的基础上，将《齐民要术》中的复音词与此前各期代表性专著、同期代表著作及现代汉语的复音词作横向和纵向的比较，试图勾勒出《齐民要术》复音词在语义、词性上的

全文：特点，并把《齐民要术》中的并列式复音词与历史中比较有代表性的几种口语性较强的专著及现代汉语中的相关复音词进行对比，探究其中的发展和演变规律。 第四章主要对《齐民要术》中的补充式复音词、主谓式复音词

从考古发现看辽上京地区契丹人习俗

作者： 杨婷婷   来源： 辽宁师范大学 年份： 2014 文献类型 ： 学位论文 关键词： 契丹   辽上京   习俗  

描述： 辽上京的营建，为契丹辽王朝的建立打下了坚实的基础。为了更加深入的了解辽上京地区的发展进程，本文拟利用该地区考古发现与以往的研究结果，结合历史文献，对当地契丹人风俗习惯进行深入分析探讨，以期有助于深化上京地区契丹人习俗的研究。风俗习惯与历史演化是相辅相成的，对一个地区的风俗习惯 的充分了解，更有利于了

全文：、祖陵陵园遗址及佛教遗址的深入分析和探查，探索了辽上京地区契丹人的生活习俗、殡葬习俗和宗教习俗，旨在发掘该地区风俗演变的深层次原因。从考古发现上看，辽上京地区契丹人风俗习惯是基于其本土的自然条件和生活模式

西北神话初探

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描述： 本文共分为四部分。 第一，关于西北神话与自然界及日、月神话体系的形成研究： 西北神话的发生与流传与西北自然界密不可分，因此本章重点阐述西北自然风貌、地理环境与西北神话之间的联系。探索昆仑文化与西北民族文化之间的关联；通过古文献中“明夷”与“石夷”以及日、月之母、后羿射日等神话故事的记载梳理西北日、月

全文：、农业文化两方面之间的关系： 1、西北神话反映了民族战争与民族迁徙的历史现象。本文结合历史学知识，讨论禹伐三苗之战，黄帝、蚩尤争战以及西王母的历史迁徙轨迹与神话色彩分析古代社会经济、政治、文化在神话中