中国北方现代人扩散与农业起源的环境考古学观察

作者： 吉笃学   来源： 兰州大学 年份： 2007 文献类型 ： 学位论文 关键词： 文化对环境的响应   BP事件   新旧石器过渡   中晚期过渡   现代人起源   农业起源   新石器   末次盛冰期   7.2   6.4kyr  

描述： 环境考古学是通过环境和文化之间关系的研究来揭示人类如何适应环境变化，如何调整自己的状态以缓解各种压力，从而实现规避风险保全自己的目的，为人类未来的生存和发展提供有益的借鉴。 人类对环境变化的反应一般采取两种策略：一是响应；二是适应。目前，现代人扩散和农业起源是了解和认识人类适应策略的最理想的案例。为

全文：地区的扩散有关。为了寻找现代人类化石，追踪他们向黄土高原腹地迁移和扩散过程，了解现代人类迁移的根本动因，作者等人自2002年以来以甘肃和宁夏为中心进行大范围的野外考察，并依据国外的相关理论建立了人类迁移

中国农业科技体制百年变迁研究

作者： 朱世桂   来源： 南京农业大学 年份： 2012 文献类型 ： 学位论文 关键词： 农业科技   科技管理   农业史   科技体制   近现代  

描述： “科学技术是第一生产力”,农业是国民经济的基础,当前我国农业发展进入新的时期,保障粮食安全、农民增收、农业增效,突破资源环境约束,加强生态环境建设,实现中国特色的农业现代化,对农业科技的需求日愈强烈,我国进入了更加依靠现代科技创新驱动的新阶段；要进一步提升农业科技创新水平,必须有完善的农业科技体制机

全文：“科学技术是第一生产力”,农业是国民经济的基础,当前我国农业发展进入新的时期,保障粮食安全、农民增收、农业增效,突破资源环境约束,加强生态环境建设,实现中国特色的农业现代化,对农业科技的需求日愈强烈,我国进入了更加依靠现代科技创新驱动的新阶段；要进一步提升农业科技创新水平,必须有完善的农业科技体制机制来保障,但我国历史形成的农业科技体制弊端,如条块分割,农科教分离、科技经济脱节、缺乏科学的创新评价机制等问题,严重制约着科技创新能力的提高和农业科技事业的发展。因此从历史的视角来研究探索农业科技体制形成与改革创新方略,为农业科体制改革提供理论和现实参考依据具有十分重要的意义。 科技体制是科技活动的组织体系、管理形式和组织运行机制等的总称。中国改革开放以来,特别是中央颁布《关于科技体制改革的决定》以来,体制问题一直是科技界讨论关注的热点。围绕农业科技体制人们在讨论中比较关注农业科技体制的弊端、运行障碍及其克服的办法,至于当前科技体制是如何形成、特点如何、体制问题的根源如何产生、国家在构建科技体制过程中有那些经历、受哪些因素影响、产生了哪些启示等,探讨不够全面系统,历史性的研究成果相对缺乏也比较零散。农业科技体制一般涉及到农业教育、科研和推广的内容,本论文以我国农业科技体制为研究对象,以20世纪这一百年为经度,以各时期科技体制的主要内容为纬度,面对前人较少涉及制度层面的科技体制形成及发展本因研究的缺憾,基于历史文献资料调研的基础上,采用多学科理论与方法,本文对我国农业科技体制一百年来的变化历程进行了较为系统的梳理,将体制百年变迁分为四个重要时期,并对各时期农业科技体制变迁的内容进行了较为全面的阐述,分析了不同国家科技体制模式对我国农业科技体制形成的影响,并阐述了国情、政府政策等对我国农业科技体制变迁的作用,在此基础上总结了农业科技体制变迁的一些特点、历史启示,最后提出了未来农业科技体制完善发展的战略对策。 第一,分析中国农业科技体制萌芽初创时期(1897--1937年)体制化过程与创立情况,得出中国农业科技体制是在近代社会力兴改革变法的政治环境、振兴实业改良传统农业的经济环境、开始重视科技引进西方农学的科学文化氛围下创建产生。来自政府和社会两方面重视农业科技的推动力量,以立农报、兴农学,引进西方农业科技；以设农政,建机构,开展农事试验研究,奠定体制化的组织基础；以组社团,促交流,颁布《中央及地方农事试验场联合办法》等规章,构建了农业科技宏观管理体制和农科组织基本框架,在组织管理上逐渐将农业科研管理逐渐从农业生产行政管理中独立出来,组织机构日渐发展,形成我国农业科技体制雏形。 第二,重点描画了1937年以后国统区、抗日根据地和解放区、日占区不同区域农科体制形成及我国农业科技体制的曲折发展。国统区为了适应战时经济需要,原中央所属的农业科研机构与地方农业试验机构进行了一系列调整,建立了以工作站为代表的一套农业推广制度,以及统一合作的农业科技运行机制；抗日根据地和解放区通过引进、培养农业科技人才,设立边区农科机构组织,开展科技奖励等,促进了农业生产的发展,也初步构建了注重技术试验推广应用的边区农业科技体制,为解放后创建新中国农业科技体制奠立了一定的思想基础和建设经验。日占区日伪从强化殖民统治出发,优先开展见效快生产上急需的应用性研究,建立了一批农事试验机构,构建了科研计划目标明确、组织结构较为完整、设施相对配套齐全的日伪农业科技体制,为东北等地解放后农业科技发展奠定了一定的基础。 第三,按1949—1957年和1958—1978年两个阶段主要介绍新中国成立后当代农业科技体制重新构建与波动调整的历史内容,分析了组建独立的农学院、中国农业科学院成立,县建“四级农科网”等新的农业科教体制形成过程,肯定了在集中型计划管理体制下协作攻关科技组织方式的制度合理性,梳理了新的农业技术推广体系建设调整的历程,探讨了农业科技高度集中的计划性管理方式、农科组织体系隶属关系多样、科技体系条块分割、重复分散的历史成因。 第四,全面回顾总结了1978年起我国改革开放后农业科技体制改革实践及成效,既反映了农业科技体制改革中引导科技面向经济建设的成效,又对以科技拨款方式转变为主的科技运行机制改革等政策实施后,基础性、公益性特点的农业科技在市场经济条件下进行体制改革的矛盾与困惑,进行了客观描述等。 第五,历史地探析了美国、日本、前苏联等不同国家的科技体制模式及其对我国农业科技体制形成的作用。 第六,运用综合集成等方法,总结了百年来中国农业科技体制历史演变特点,和从资源禀赋与基本国情、社会政治环境和政府政策、世界农业科技革命和农业科技自身发展特点、市场需求及国际经济一体化等方面探讨了其对我国农业科技体制发展的影响。最后归纳了我国农业科技体制变迁的主要历史经验与启示,分析梳理了当前农业科技体制的现状与主要问题,基于历史与现实探讨了未来我国农业科教体制建设的基本原则,提出完善我国农业科技体制的战略思路,建议侧重在建立农业科技创新体系、优化农业科技管理协同创新、完善政府主导市场引导的农业科技投入机制、建立官民结合的农业科技推广应用体制、建立健全多元价值的科技评价制度等,将为我国农业科技体制改革创新提供历史科学的参考依据。

西辽河上游地区新石器时代至早期青铜时代植物遗存研究

作者： 孙永刚   来源： 内蒙古师范大学 年份： 2014 文献类型 ： 学位论文 关键词： 早期青铜时代   西辽河上游   植物遗存   生业方式   新石器时代  

描述： 本文的研究目的主要是探讨西辽河上游地区的生态环境变化与北方旱作农业的起源和发展，以及不同考古学文化时期人类活动、植物遗存与生业方式的关系。本文涉及的年代范围是距今10000-3500年间，约相当于地学界的全新世初期至大暖期结束时期，或考古学界的新石器时代至早期青铜时代。 自二十世纪六十年代以来，随着

全文：、分析与讨论，这为探讨西辽河上游地区北方旱作农业的起源与发展，不同考古学文化时间段生业方式的选择与变化等提供了科学的实物资料，而这些新资料将有助于我们对西辽河上游地区旱作农业起源与发展、生态环境对北方

宋朝宣抚使制度研究

作者： 郑丽萍   来源： 河北大学 年份： 2009 文献类型 ： 学位论文 关键词： 中央集权   地方军政   行政制度   宋朝   宣抚使  

描述： as the top power in local areas.Famous politician and prime minister in feudal China Li Gang once said,“From the forefather，Xuan Fu was the most important position which can be held by current archon."

全文：等。人事管理也是宣抚使职能的一个重要方面,它不仅能够奏辟、举荐官员,而且对辖区内官员有权进行督察和奖惩。而在四川等特殊地区,宣抚使可以主持科举考试和负责官员的磨勘迁转,决定他们的去留。此外,宣抚使仍保留了最初

明清时期巢湖流域农业发展研究

作者： 陈恩虎   来源： 南京农业大学 年份： 2009 文献类型 ： 学位论文 关键词： 农业经济   农业发展   明清   巢湖流域  

描述： 区域农业经济研究是目前经济史研究的热门课题,至今已有许多成果问世。相对而言,巢湖流域农业经济的研究较为滞后,并且研究领域和成果比较分散,尚未形成全面、系统的研究体系,其主要原因应当是学术界常常会以明清时代的巢湖流域与全国其他区域相比不具备“典型性”为由,漠视了对巢湖流域的经济研究。因此,努力填补明清

全文：中的比较法,分析巢湖流域与安徽省其它区域、本地区前后期的关系、异同和兴衰。选题研究的主干性材料为地方志、家谱一类的地方文献,并充分发掘现存的文书资料,对《徽州千年契约文书·清民国编》第1卷和第2卷收

明代太仓库研究

作者： 苏新红   来源： 东北师范大学 年份： 2009 文献类型 ： 学位论文 关键词： 太仓库   年例银   北边军饷   盐法   户部   明代财政  

描述： the financial system of the Ming Dynasty was always changing, this dissertation makes research on the state silver Treasury of the Ming Jiajing, Cunji Salt(存积盐effective way to solve this problem was to cultivate generations of gentry scholars with high-level morals. That was the fundamental reason that the Ming country preferred the selection and appointment of virtued talents to the complex and precise construction of the country’s systems. The basic problem of the Ming Dynasty’s tax system did not lie in whether the tax rate was high or low, but lie in the up-grading contradiction between the country’s decreasing ability to collect taxes and the increasing financial need in reality. The standard to measure the Ming Dynasty’s financial system was whether it corresponded to Ming people’s financial ideas and values. Compared with the modern capital society in which the personal interest has its natural justice, Ming China, with the limited productive capability, paid the most possible attention to the living conditions of the maximum current people. Judged by this idea, Ming China’s tax policy aiming to maintain the society’s steadiness and the minimum economic developing level was at least comprehensible rather than preposterous. ) was occasionally sold and the silver got by this was sent to Taicangku due to Taicangku’s financial need. However, this behaviour never became formally systematized. In the Jiajing period, in the dilemma that the forefathers’ governing systems should be maintained and the problem that Kaizhong System(开中制 ) could not effectively meet the north military towns’ financial need, a two-way system was formed gradually, in which Zhengyan(the original amount of salt controlled by the government, 正盐 ) was still kept for the north military towns and Yuyan(the residual salt, 余盐 ) was sold into silver and the silver was sent to Taicangku. Through this system, the Ministry of Revenue collected most of the incomes of the salt system into Taicangku and therefore strengthened its supervision and control towards the Salt Monopoly system. Because of the principle that the income from the Salt Monopoly system should be used to provide the military provisions and pays, which was set up in the early Ming Dynasty, the relationship between Taicangku and the north military towns’ financial expenditures was further strengthened too. All in all, the financial system of the Ming Dynasty was full of life and it kept changing as time went by or under the influences of different historical factors. This transforming process never ceased. Thus the study on the financial system of the Ming Dynasty or even the systems of the traditional China should pay attention to the community’s whole life process that the concerned system lived in. Only in this way can the reforming reasons and the basic conditions of the studied system be understood more clearly. As to the Emperor’s power in the Ming Dynasty’s financial system, it seems that the previous study has exaggerated it. In the Ming Dynasty, it had a clear tendency that the government’s public finances and the emperor’s personal finances separated from each other step by step. In this process, the Ministry of Revenue had a certain amount of administrative power towards Taicangku. Although all the economic decisions should get the emperor’s permission at last, it did not mean that the emperor’s financial power could not be divided or all the institutions under the emperor had only duties but no powers. Most of the previous study on the Ming Dynasty’s economics used the class struggle theory and paid too much attention to the contradictions between the ruling classes and the ruled ones. This dissertation’s study shows that inside the ruling classes there were enduring and profound struggles between the gentry scholars, who paid more attention to the country’s entire benefits, and the interest group with the emperor at the core, who put too much emphasis on their personal interests. The goal of the Ming Dynasty’s finances was to maintain the proper administration of the country by levying the minimum taxes and the ideological essence behind it was to protect the basic physical living conditions of the maximum people. The contradiction between the personal interest and the country’s public benefit was the basic problem in the Ming Dynasty’s financial system. Under the condition of keeping the imperial system unchanged, the comparatively practical and Dynasty, which in Chinese was called “Taicangku”（太仓库） , and aims to draw a line of what Taicangku’s financial system and status were and how they changed as the time went by. In order to show the main vertical line of Taicangku’s evolution, the basic method is to arrange the concerned historical materials in the chronological sequence. As to the bibliography, Mingshilu (《明实录》 ) keeps a complete record from the beginning to the end of the Ming Dynasty, and thus covers the whole developing course of Taicangku, which makes it the core document of this dissertation. Meanwhile, in order to know more precisely about the lateral condition of Taicangku’s financial system and status, this dissertation makes full use of the historical documents on the Ming Dynasty’s systems, such as Zhusizhizhang (《诸司职掌》 ), Minghuidian (《明会典》 ) , Taicangkao (《太仓考》 ), Wanli Kuaijilu (《万历会计录》 ) and so on. Besides, the collected works of Zhao Shiqing (赵 世卿) , Bi Ziyan (毕自严 ), Ni Yuanlu (倪元璐 ), who were the First Lord of the Ministry of Revenue (户部尚书 ), contain many official papers on Taicangku and therefore are important to this dissertation. This dissertation also refers to many other gentry scholars’ personal collected works or official papers. This dissertation’s study shows that Neiku( 内库 ) was an institution both for the government’s public finances and the imperial household’s private finances at the early period of the Ming Dynasty. As Neiku kept reducing its government financial duties and became mainly the setup for the imperial household’s private finances, Taicangku,which was set up in the seventh year of Zhengtong’s reign（正统） , took up more and more public financial duties of the country. Besides, the larger and larger silver need in the north military towns was another reason that Taicangku’s revenue items kept increasing. After a long and slow evolving process in Zhengtong, Jingtai(景泰 ), Tianshun(天顺 ),Chenghua(成化 ) and so on, Taicangku developed quickly in Jiajing(嘉靖 ), Longqing(隆庆 ) and Wanli (万历 ). As Taicangku’s revenue became larger, its financial status got higher and this process reached its peak in the first period of Wanli, when its income in the outside warehouse was used for the regular expenditures in the capital and the north military towns while the silvers in the old and underground warehouses were stored and saved for military emergencies or serious natural calamities. At this period, the income of Neiku was used mainly for the imperial household’s expenses. In the middle period of Wanli, on one hand, the financial need of the north military towns was still expanding while the Ministry of Revenue was no longer capable of enlarging Taicangku’s revenue items and its income amount, which resulted in the bigger and bigger gap between Taicangku’s fixed revenue and the north military towns’ practical financial need. On the other hand, Taicangku’s revenue items and its practical income amount kept decreasing due to the increase of the uncollected taxes and exempted taxes so that it was unable to pay its fixed amount of annual silver to the north military towns. Although the augmentation of new taxes and the borrowings from the old and underground warehouses of Taicangku and the Ministry of Revenue in Nanjing relieved Taicangku from its financial difficulties temporarily, they could neither change the tendency that Taicangku’s income became less and less nor alter the fact that the financial needs of the north military towns kept increasing. The reverse transformations between Taicangku’s practical revenue and the north military towns’ financial needs led to the collapse of the Ming Dynasty’s government finances. Among Taicangku’s spending items, the most important one was the annual silver sent to the north military towns. In the early and middle developing periods of Taicangku, Taicangku’s annual silver was only a part of the Capital’s annual silver(Jingyunyin, 京运银 ). At the end of Jiajing and the beginning of Longqing, Taicangku took up the main duty to provide the Capital’s annual silver. In the early period of Wanli, the issue of Taicangku’s annual silver was ruled by the steady system and this part of silver became a regular component of the north military towns’ financial provisions to maintain their fundamental administration. From then on to Chongzhen, Taicangku’s annual silver and the Capital’s annual silver became one thing. Although the record of Taicangku’s providing the annual silver could be seen in the documents of Chenghua, the record of its yearly provided amount appeared in the first year of Longqing. In Jiajing’s reign, Taicangku had become the important setup to grant the Capital’s annual silver, although there were not enough historical materials to prove that this period’s Capital annual silver was entirely taken on by Taicangku. In Longqing and the early period of Wanli, the yearly amount of Taicangku’s annual silver was steady and the difference between different years was not big; the budget of Taicangku’s annual silver could be realized and there was no big gap between the budget amount and the practical granted amount of Taicangku’s annual silver. From the fifteenth year of Wanli to the thirty-sixth year of Wanli, the yearly amount of Taicangku’s annual silver increased quickly and formed so much financial pressure to Taicangku that the Ministry of Revenue had to borrow silver from its own old and underground warehouses, or from the the silver storehouse of the Court of the Imperial Stud(Taipusi, 太仆寺 ). On the other hand, as Taicangku’s practically colleted revenue became less and less, Taicangku’s practical expenditure of its annual silver became decreasing. From the late period of Wanli to Chongzhen, the annual silver’s budget of the previously built warehouse of Taicangku（ Jiuku， 旧库） stopped increasing and maintained at a relatively steady level. At the same time, the practical silver amount that Taicangku provided to the north military towns reduced quickly and the gap between them became larger and larger. At the end of Longqing and the beginning of Wanli, the proportion of Taicangku’s annual silver and the north military towns’ total amount of military provisions was almost equal to one third. On one side, this rate showed that Taicangku’s annual silver had become very important to the north military towns; on the other hand, this rate also reflected that the provisions of the north military towns were not completely relied on Taicangku’s annual silver and the incomes from the Soldiers’ Field (Tuntian，屯田 )， peasant-transported tax (Minyun, 民运) and salt monopoly, which were two thirds of the whole provisions of the north military towns, were still the fundamental part. The basic financial principle of the Ming Dynasty was to expend according to the income and this year’s revenue and stock were usually expended for the next year. However, in the most years after Jiajing, due to the high financial pressure of the north military towns and the fact that the income was not enough to cover the expending need, the Ming government had to take measures to enlarge Taicangku’s revenue items. As a result, some of the provisional income items or the items that were meant to meet certain emergencies finally became formal and institutional elements of Taicangku’s income. In the most years from the late period of Wanli to Chongzhen, Taicangku’s yearly expenditure frequently exceeded its yearly income. Not only the newly-added revenue could not be collected, but also more and more original amount of income could not be collected. In most of the recorded years from the seventh year of Jiajing until Chongzhen, Taicangku’s yearly expenditures exceeded its yearly revenues. However, in this situation, Ming China’s financial system kept running for more than a century. The first reason was that the editors of Mingshilu had a strong inclination to choose Taicangku’s losing years to record, which strengthened the impression that Taicangku was at a loss for a long period. The second reason was that Taicangku’s revenue amount generally referred to the incomes of the fixed tax items while the borrowed silver from other institutions were included in Taicangku’s expenditures but excluded from Taicangku’s incomes. The third reason was that one of the motive forces of Taicangku’s development was its enlarging financial expenditures. The last reason was that Taicangku’s value to the Ming government’s financial system, especially to the north military towns’ militrary provisions and pays, was not fundamental but subsidiary. Finally, the history of the evolving relationship between Taicangku and Salt Monopoly system showed that the Jiajing period was the watershed of their financial relationship. Before

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